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Metaprogramming and DNA

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In informatics metaprogramming is a technique consisting in developing computer programs (sets of instructions) that output other programs. While simple programming means instructions generating data, metaprogramming means instructions generating instructions. In general the prefix “meta” means a thing/cause that stays at a higher semantic/ontological level than another thing/effect (in the case of metaprogramming we have a two-level hierarchy where a parent program creates child programs). For a tutorial introduction to metaprogramming see for example the following Jonathan Bartlett’s brilliant articles:
one, two and three.

DNA contains instructions, biological code for working-out various constructive cellular jobs (making proteins, setting developmental parameters, etc.). Question (inspired by the above ascertainment and readings): does DNA contain also meta-programs beyond simple programs?

Much DNA (outside its coding-for-proteins portions) seems without function (junk-DNA). Is it possible that some junk-DNA is meta-code able to assembly other DNA code? This could be an interesting ID prediction. Many have noted as the information amount contained in the genomes seems really too little to account for the overall complexity of organisms. Metaprogramming would be exactly one of the techniques able to compress the biological information.

If the “DNA-metaprogramming” ID prediction were confirmed in the lab this would provide additional terrific evidence of design inside the cell. In fact metaprogramming involves an additional level of abstraction upon the classic programming level. After all intelligence is what can construct hierarchies of unlimited levels of abstraction. Who would bet that the intelligence that designed life limited itself to simple programming only and didn’t use advanced programming? In my opinion just the bottom programming level is absolutely outside the range of what undirected evolution can reach (for reasons of principle). But unfortunately we see not even the discovery of programming in the cell convinced evolutionists about ID. May be would the discovery of biological metaprogramming convince them finally?

Bartlett himself also provided some insights about the presence of metainformation in the cell here and here (last two pages). I think these works represent genuine ID research and go in the direction of confirmation of a possible ID prediction about the presence of metainformation in the cell.

The analysis contained in these docs of the VDJ recombination system as a metaprogramming system is persuasive. It is likely that in front of the difficult problem of generating “millions or billions of antibodies out of a relatively few number of genes” a skilled software developer would resort to metaprogramming. Really it seems the designer of life used such advanced technique (or something like that) to solve difficult biological tasks (like to engineer parts of the immunitary system).

Usually metaprogramming implies the development of a new metalanguage that serves to assembly constructs of an object language, which in turn will be run by the hardware. Eventually metalanguage and object language can be the same (e.g. “nihil obstat” that one writes a metaprogram using the C language to output another C program). In this case the syntactical level remains the same, nonetheless the semantic level of the former respect the latter is higher. Only intelligence can stack semantic levels. The double level of abstraction superimposed on matter implied in metaprogramming applied to biology is a thing that sure is very far from the low material level of the natural laws and randomness and should help to convince anybody about the sophisticated design of life.

As last note, this issue emphasizes again the importance of the involvement in biology of computer science experts (and specialists of other fields too) who are in the same time ID supporters. Before the many applications and explanations suggested by ID one doesn’t understand as evolutionists might say that the ID perspective is not useful to science.

Comments
Bunny,
"In “The Origins of Sex” by Lynn Margulis, it is postulated that the similarities observed between the proteins that ‘fix’ mutations in DNA when a cell undergoes meiosis, the transformation into a zygote, and the proteins which fixed damage to DNA caused by ultraviolet light (namely adjacent Thymines bonding together), are evidence that meiosis is an evolutionary development spurred on by organisms moving towards the surface of ancient oceans."
No. Similarities are convincing evidence of similarities. They are at best weak circumstancial evidence of evolution. There are many similar biological functions in nature. To postulate an evolutionary pathway amid a myriad of possible choices is at best quesswork. Take for example Darwin's constantly changing tree of life. There is only one way to prove evolution. Scientists can map genomes. To prove evolution a) the dna from one species like a chimpanzee must be altered to produce a completely new species such as a gorilla, b) the mechanism for this change in nature must be verified. It is not enough for a scientist to design life. The scientist is an intelligent agent afterall. And c) it must be show how this mutation can occur and succeed in a large enough population to sustain a new species. If this can be done then you may convince some intelligent people of the fact of evolution. But until this is done, considering the complexity of life and the limited time, geological evidence, etc. evolution is unconvincing.Peter
August 21, 2009
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Cabal, Please read stuff (on Wiki, for instance) about DNA replication and cell cycle. You will find that there are a lot of CONTROL MECHANISMS that overlooks the DNA replication and cell division. For example, within cell cycle process, there are CHECKPOINTS CONTROL MECHANISMS that assures the correct completion of a particular cell replication phase. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle Any CONTROL MECHANISM contains, in one way or another, decision making structures or functions. Controlling something means that you must HAVE INFORMATION about the process you need to control, and you MUST HAVE (already available!) an CONTROL ALGORITHM. Controlling the cell cycle means that there must be a way the cell KNOWS what is the status of the replication phase process - that implies some sensors or pattern recognition ability that will generate an output (PASS/FAIL). Also "the cell" needs to know HOW TO PROCEED FURTHER, and so on and so forth. My understanding of the cell (division) cycle is that inside the cell there are computing capabilities - there is no question about that, capabilities able to understand if the process of the particular division phase completed successfully. And IF yes (if current phase completed successfully), THEN go further with the next phase, ELSE do something else. IF-THEN-ELSE is the the abstract of decision making. Ok, maybe I have failed to give examples of decision making structures within the DNA, but within the cell, there are plenty of them. And neither supports evolution theory. Bonus - two paragraphs from above link, that (IMHO) heavily supports ID: "Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to "reverse" the cycle." "Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle. Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Several checkpoints are designed to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells." Keywords: regulation, detection, repair, prevention, control, ordered, monitor, verification, designed (sic!). All of these in deep contrast with: chance, random, purposeless, unguided, uncontrolled, blind...Sladjo
August 21, 2009
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I guess I should make it clear that my primary objection is directed at the tendency to compare activity in the cell with a computer program. Metaprogramming? I say no. It may be fun, but is it relevant?
I am challenging you to explain how an decision making (IF – THEN – ELSE) structure, that is present also in the DNA, can arise by random, fully materialistic, non-conscious, unguided, unintelligent processes.
How it (whatever it is) got there is one question, another is where is it? Aren't we reading our abstractions into what actually is going on at the basic level? The way I understand genetics is that there isn't any master plan for an organism. I don't see any if-then-else in DNA so I can't say anything about it. I think developmental biology, i.e. evo-devo is the part of biology most relevant for understanding DNA. Not only does it explain how DNA works, it also is very relevant wrt the question about origins that fuels this debate.Cabal
August 21, 2009
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Define the circumstances in which chemicals organize set of symbols that represent other checmicals/processes/outcomes.
I know nothing about that. What I think I know is that the processes taking place at the most basic level are unaware about the existence of any higher levels. Chemistry doesn't recognize symbols.Cabal
August 21, 2009
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An organism that has to manufacture, maintain and drag around with it a mountain of useless mutations while waiting for a chance correlation of relevance to occur so that something useful can happen, is an organism that natural selection is going to select against, not favour! Moreover, an organism that can survive long enough to accumulate a mountain of useless mutations is an organism that does not need useless mutations — it must already have all the information it needs to survive!
It has already been established that organisms carry loads of seemingly inactive, superfluous DNA. They survive. At any given opportunity it may be put to use... By the designer?Cabal
August 21, 2009
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@Cabal, post #10 Unfortunately I wasn't able to access the link you posted, but I'll try again later. I'm sure it's interesting. Are you absolutely sure there isn't any "CPU" in the cell?... Because there are a lot of processes in the cell that work exactly as computer programming, decoding and copying information. More, there are sensor built in, that help identify modifications in the cell environment, send signals, signals that are interpreted and functional execution is started right away. I cannot think of inside cell structure example for the above, but first thing that pops up into my mind is the functioning of the immune system - it decodes the information (presence) of the "invaders" and reacts in a pre-programmed way. The digestive system in vertebrates is similar - generates enzymes according to the ingested food type, and many more examples can be listed. What I want to point out is that - as you said ("orchestra playing") - an organism is a HIGHLY AUTOMATED "DEVICE" that works in a pre-programmed way. All the functions of the organs are very specific and NOT RANDOM! Important to be understood... I have a master degree in Automation and Computer Science and I can tell you/assure you that a living organism is simply an excellent example of FULLY AUTOMATIC MACHINERY, pre-programmed to take care of itself and multiply itself. It can react to environment changes, trough sophisticated sensors "on board", it can feed itself, it can move, it can communicate, it can even heal itself in some degree. I am challenging you to explain how an decision making (IF - THEN - ELSE) structure, that is present also in the DNA, can arise by random, fully materialistic, non-conscious, unguided, unintelligent processes. BR, Sladjo.Sladjo
August 21, 2009
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From Mr. Williams article re: ENCODE and certain findings...
"We reported previously that the transcripts overlap the gene regions, but the overlaps are huge compared to the size of the genes. On average, the transcripts are 10 to 50 times the size of the gene region, overlapping on both sides. And as many as 20% of transcripts range up to more than 100 times the size of the gene region."
Botanist? Pffft! "Silly creationist" what does he know? The moment I learned about meta-information transcription process of overlapping, as any informed programmer will tell you, there must be pointers and/or keyed codes for such a Read/Write recogniztion system. It is one thing to do this as a programmer. The CPU/Storage and OS is already setup. Unless you are a developer in machine language, you are fairly oblivious to how memory swapping, "Overlapping and shared memory is utilized and compressed. There is still much more Meta-Information I think to be fully understood on a detailed level about how these features work. Much less any meta-programming aspects. Especially for dynamic systems. This is why I doubt the story telling devices used so often by Darwinist. Saying "it could have" "happened" does not make it so. We can easily say, a Designer "could have" designed it this way. At this point no one wins the argument. So, lets drop that line of reasoning from the Darwinist. That simply does not work anymore. The "anything can happen" psuedo-logic statement of perceived macro changes over time is history.
"This would be like photocopying a page in a book and having to get information from 10, 50 or even 100 other pages in order to use the information on that page."
I challenge any Darwinist to build a system based upon their actual theory that matches what we observe today in genetics of the cell. First, they cannot utilize stored blueprints of existing DNA. They must start from scratch. Second they cannot utilize Intelligent Regulators(i.e. formerly Junk DNA) and third, they cannot start with any Coordinate Control System that helps all independent systems to work simultaneously together for replication while defending against any threat to survival. When they have completed this project they will have discovered how to Design a living system from scratch, much like they say "it happened" a billion years ago. Funny, even if they were to pull this off, they'd still be "designing" it from the start with a goal in mind for animated life to appear. If this was not so serious a fight for truth, I'd be laughing all the time at such parody of foolish concepts by the Darwinist. I didn't even mention the necessary FirmWare/OS systems environment: Physics laws, Constants, Energy, atomic forces, electron orbits, etc., etc., required to keep a stable environment. Otherewise, none of us can play with our ideas in the first place. Darwinist or IDist. Manipulating On/Off switches, Boolean Gates, and signalling structures so that the symbolic codes align or not. To play with such toys in a Designer Lab is only available to any of us due to the hardware around us. But, as VJTorley stated, I'm not sure about the meta-programming aspects at this point, but the meta-information clearly has shed light on the foolishness of Darwinism in light of information from ENCODE and even from the past several decades. That Darwinist still rule intellectually today in the classroom is not due to being correct, but merely their old beards have not yet faded away. Their ridicule worked for a long time. Their mocking and scoffing. But they have no where to turn now. The evidence is overwhelming against their theory now. And their future is certain failure. Because they will never "design" a random system such as they believe in. 1) They need hardware - Life Support 2) They need an end goal - Life. One is meaningless without two and two cannot exist without one.DATCG
August 20, 2009
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.Dave, We have been here before. Stereochemistry explains nothing about the sequencing of nucleotides within DNA. Absolutely nothing. Stereochemistry establishes the relationship (i.e., the 'meaning') between amino acid, anticodon and codon. That has quite a bit to do with the "sequencing of nucleotides within DNA". The fact that (downstream from the information) the parts that are encoded to do the job, can in fact do the job, is of little consequence to the origin of the information upstream. The whole concept of a 'code' to begin with is based on the association of amino acid, anticodon and codon. The association is the information, and the stereochemical affinities explain its origin.Dave Wisker
August 20, 2009
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Dave, We have been here before. Stereochemistry explains nothing about the sequencing of nucleotides within DNA. Absolutely nothing. The fact that (downstream from the information) the parts that are encoded to do the job, can in fact do the job, is of little consequence to the origin of the information upstream. No matter how you stack it, no matter what timeline you want to attribute to it, no matter in what order you see the events unfolding, you still come to a point where you have chemicals assigning representative symbolic meaning to other chemicals. Why? Because that is the way we find it today.Upright BiPed
August 20, 2009
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vjtorley - "A Creator can work just as surely through a gradual, natural process as through a supernatural one." Indeed. Pro-creation is one such method. It is my belief that God did indeed create things in an instant as one reads in Genesis. But the thousands of years thereafter (especially the flood) have muddied the waters of that event. (Pun intended). :) The first created people came about in a radically different way than their progeny.IRQ Conflict
August 20, 2009
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Well, I don't know about metaprogramming, but metainformation in DNA is already an established fact, and like metaprogramming, it points clearly towards a Designer. Botanist Alex Williams explains why in his article, Astonishing DNA complexity demolishes neo-Darwinism :
The astonishing complexity of the dynamic information storage capacity of the DNA/chromosome system is, in itself, a marvel of engineering design. Such a magnificent solution to such a monster logistics problem could surely only come from a Master Designer. But the nature of the majority of this information poses an impossible conundrum for neo-Darwinists. Proteins are the work-horse molecules of biology. But protein-coding genes make up only a tiny proportion of all the information that we have been describing above. The vast majority of information in the human genome is not primary code for proteins, but meta-information - information about information - the instructions that a cell needs for using the proteins to make, maintain and reproduce functional human beings. Neo-Darwinists say that all this information arose by random mutations, but this is not possible. Random events are, by definition, independent of one another. But meta-information is, by definition, totally dependent upon the information to which it relates. It would be quite nonsensical to take the cooking instructions for making a cake and apply them to the assembly of, say, a child's plastic toy (if nothing else, the baking stage would reduce the toy to a mangled mess). Cake-cooking instructions only have meaning when applied to cake-making ingredients. So too, the logistics solution to the cell division problem is only relevant to the problem of cell division. If we applied the logistics solution to the problem of mate attraction via pheromones (scent) in moths it would not work. All the vast amount of meta-information in the human genome only has meaning when applied to the problem of using the human genome to make, maintain and reproduce human beings. Even if we granted that the first biological information came into existence by a random process in an 'RNA-world' scenario, the meta-information needed to use that information could not possibly come into existence by the same random (independent) process because metainformation is inextricably dependent upon the information that it relates to. There is thus no possible random (mutation) solution to this conundrum. Can natural selection save the day? No. There are at least 100 (and probably many more) bits of meta-information in the human genome for every one bit of primary (protein-coding gene) information. An organism that has to manufacture, maintain and drag around with it a mountain of useless mutations while waiting for a chance correlation of relevance to occur so that something useful can happen, is an organism that natural selection is going to select against, not favour! Moreover, an organism that can survive long enough to accumulate a mountain of useless mutations is an organism that does not need useless mutations — it must already have all the information it needs to survive! What kind organism already has all the information it needs to survive? There is only one answer - an organism that was created in the beginning with all that it needs to survive. (In Journal of Creation, 21(3) 2007, p. 115.)
From an ID perspective, I would just like to add that "created" does not have to mean "created ex nihilo, in the blink of an eye." A Creator can work just as surely through a gradual, natural process as through a supernatural one. What Williams' argument demonstrates, however, is that the process whereby meta-information arose in the cell must have been an intelligent one. If the meta-information in cells did indeed evolve gradually, then the evolutionary process itself must have been rigged by the Designer to allow it to generate and preserve meta-information. Making a process like that would have required just as much intelligence on the Designer's part as ex nihilo creation, if not more so.vjtorley
August 20, 2009
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Cabal, To better understand a little about how DNA really works, this might be useful: Define the circumstances in which chemicals organize set of symbols that represent other checmicals/processes/outcomes.
The stereochemical hypothesis for the origin of the genetic code is a start. It states that certain amino acids have sterochemical affinities for tRNA's with specific anticodons that correspnd to the genetic code.: Yarus M, JG Caporaso & R Knight (2005). Origins of the genetic code: the escaped triplet theory. Annu. Rev. Biochem 74: 179-198. From the abstract:
There is very significant evidence that cognate codons and/or anticodons are unexpectedly frequent in RNA-binding sites for seven of eight biological amino acids that have been tested. This suggests that a substantial fraction of the genetic code has a stereochemical basis, the triplets having escaped from their original function in amino acid–binding sites to become modern codons and anticodons.We explicitly show that this stereochemical basis is consistent with subsequent optimization of the code to minimize the effect of coding mistakes on protein structure. These data also strengthen the argument for invention of the genetic code in an RNA world and for the RNA world itself.
Dave Wisker
August 20, 2009
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Cabal, To better understand a little about how DNA really works, this might be useful: Define the circumstances in which chemicals organize set of symbols that represent other checmicals/processes/outcomes.Upright BiPed
August 20, 2009
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Sorry, this is the quote I intended responding to:
That’s not true. Sofistication in computer programming consist in the very INTELLIGENT way you use/develop ALGORYTHMS
Cabal
August 20, 2009
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Sophistication is nothing but a lot of stacked primitives. In computing, as in DNA.”
I am talking about DNA, there isn't any CPU in the cell decoding DNA sequentially. The computer analogy simply is not relevant. To better understand a little about how DNA really works, this might be useful: http://pandasthumb.org/archives/2008/01/making-babies-h.html How do you think DNA functions in the development of a multi-celled organism, say a centipede - a fruit fly - or a human being? From the very first cell to the full grown animal: Each cell on its own! Each cell communicating with its neighbors; it is like a huge orchestra playing - without a conductor. And yet, each member of the orchestra doing exactly what he should, nothing more, nothing less. It is marvelous!Cabal
August 20, 2009
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"Sophistication is nothing but a lot of stacked primitives. In computing, as in DNA." That's not true. Sofistication in computer programming consist in the very INTELLIGENT way you use/develop ALGORYTHMS with "the primitives", to achieve some higly developed features/functions. And probably the same is in DNA... ;) And that's something the Evo people refuse to understand...Sladjo
August 20, 2009
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Borne wrote: "But if meta-programs are discovered in the cell that will be Darwinisms death knell – but my prediction is that they will never admit it." 30 minutes later bunny wrote: "I disagree with your interpretation that this is evidence of a designer. While I agree that if there were a designer, it is likely that this entity would make extensive use of metaprogramming techniques..." Too funny. Ever think of going into prophecy Borne? Lol! :)IRQ Conflict
August 20, 2009
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"[...] a random mutation could have produced a very simple mechanism of metaprogramming through microRNA, which was then intensely selected [...]" Come on guys, come on...Sladjo
August 20, 2009
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The double level of abstraction superimposed on matter implied in metaprogramming applied to biology is a thing that sure is very far from the low material level of the natural laws and randomness and should help to convince anybody about the sophisticated design of life.
What ‘double layer of abstraction superimposed on matter’ are we talking about? Looking at a typical pc CPU, we find a primitive device capable only of executing the most basic, binary operations, expressed in the CPU’s instruction set. Iterative processes then make this into something useful, like adding two decimal numbers – and maybe even repeat-and-shift that process to create the impression of being able to multiply. (CPU’s have evolved, they may have some more sophisticated circuits as well, but afaik, computer technology still rely on the simplest of logical elements: and, or, and exor gates, and inverters. From such humble devices, the most complex cpu’s are built.) Sophistication is nothing but a lot of stacked primitives. In computing, as in DNA. Metaprogramming applied to biology? I’d like to see an example of that.Cabal
August 20, 2009
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Maybe stem cells do metaprograming...Sladjo
August 20, 2009
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Astute observation! Indeed, metaprogramming techniques do appear to be utilized by DNA. In particular, the discovery of what is now referred to as microRNA occurred over a decade ago. If you are unfamiliar with microRNA, as the content of this posts suggests, then I suggest reading up on it, as it's all the rage in both genetics and evolutionary theory at the moment. The basic gist is that small strands of DNA located in what were previously thought to be "junk DNA" regions of genome do not actually code for any proteins, but are actually responsible for the manipulation of certain gene expressions. Simplistically, in some cases this manifests as a 'switch' (if the microRNA is one way, the gene is transcribed into a protein, the other it's not), while others have a more analog effect. In particular, a recent paper ( http://www.dartmouth.edu/~dietrich/petersonetal.pdf , and subsequent discussion http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2009/07/what_caused_the_cambrian_explo.php ) suggests the existence of microRNA strands that regulate mutation rate. Subsequent simulations of this meta-evolution in various genetic algorithms produced some very interesting results, although I know of no publications on the subject. However, I disagree with your interpretation that this is evidence of a designer. While I agree that if there were a designer, it is likely that this entity would make extensive use of metaprogramming techniques, I do not believe design necessary to accomplish this. In "The Origins of Sex" by Lynn Margulis, it is postulated that the similarities observed between the proteins that 'fix' mutations in DNA when a cell undergoes meiosis, the transformation into a zygote, and the proteins which fixed damage to DNA caused by ultraviolet light (namely adjacent Thymines bonding together), are evidence that meiosis is an evolutionary development spurred on by organisms moving towards the surface of ancient oceans. Because these proteins work by essentially throwing themselves at the genome, the fewer there are the more likely a mutation is to occur in the offspring. This makes them ideal candidates for being manipulated by the 'metaprogramming' afforded by microRNA. Given the high mutation rate of organisms at the time, in particular that afforded by the predominant reproduction method of fission, it seems entirely plausible that a random mutation could have produced a very simple mechanism of metaprogramming through microRNA, which was then intensely selected towards for its benefit of allowing the much more fine-tuned metaprogramming of controlling mutation rates. In your analysis of your recent IEEE paper, you suggest that the environment contains no inherent information to select towards, and thus cannot effectively be used as the endpoint of a search algorithm. To this, I would like to respond with the following quote, taken from Wikipedia, describing an interaction between Gerald Sussman and Marvin Minsky of the MIT AI lab: In the days when Sussman was a novice, Minsky once came to him as he sat hacking at the PDP-6. "What are you doing?", asked Minsky. "I am training a randomly wired neural net to play Tic-tac-toe", Sussman replied. "Why is the net wired randomly?", asked Minsky. "I do not want it to have any preconceptions of how to play", Sussman said. Minsky then shut his eyes. "Why do you close your eyes?" Sussman asked his teacher. "So that the room will be empty." At that moment, Sussman was enlightened. What I actually said was, "If you wire it randomly, it will still have preconceptions of how to play. But you just won't know what those preconceptions are." --Marvin Minsky bunny
August 20, 2009
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Meta information in DNA is already a fact. I haven't read or heard of any discoveries of "meta-programming" per se yet, but it seems to me that such is necessary to explain the proteome. Darwinism has utterly failed at providing an explanation of any kind for the origin of information in the cell, how can it possibly explain meta-information!? But if meta-programs are discovered in the cell that will be Darwinisms death knell - but my prediction is that they will never admit it. That's because it has nothing to do with evidence - never has. It is, for them, a psychological insecurity that obliges persistent denial of realities - similar to that encountered in psychiatric ward patients. Until they give up their utter dependence on a materialist world view and the lie that only science can explain reality, they will never be free from such bondage to denials.Borne
August 20, 2009
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Thank you, niwrad, for sharing this. I had read something similar before (on bio-steganography) and came to the conclusion that metaprogramming (perhaps in "junk" DNA) may have played a role in the sudden appearance of novel biological forms as seen in the fossil record. It would not be surprising since novel information is a requirement for morphological change. This can turn out to be a very sophisticated research project for the ID community. After all, the Darwinian mechanism could not be responsible for latent information if the selective advantage is also hidden from the reach of evolution. Great post!Mario A. Lopez
August 20, 2009
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Michael Denton describes the cell as “wheels of complexity within wheels of complexity,” and what is already known about the cell puts it so far beyond the reach of Darwinian mechanisms that it’s laughable. I have a feeling we’ve only scratched the surface of the cell’s technology, so the situation will become ever-increasingly worse for the chance-and-necessity crowd. I’ve had a thought somewhat along the lines of the OP. Much of what has been proposed as junk DNA involves redundant or repetitive nucleotide sequences. Computer programs often use repetitive or iterative code (for example, for(), do(), and while() loops), the number of iterations of which are either specified or controlled by other code.GilDodgen
August 20, 2009
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