Mystery at the heart of life

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December 21, 2014

Cell biology, Intelligent Design, News

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Cell biology
Intelligent Design
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By Biologic Institute’s Ann Gauger, at Christianity Today’s Behemoth, the secret life of cells:

Our bodies are made up of some 100 trillion cells. We tend to think of cells as static, because that’s how they were presented to us in textbooks. In fact, the cell is like the most antic, madcap, crowded (yet fantastically efficient) city you can picture. And at its heart lies a mystery—or I should say, several mysteries—involving three special kinds of molecules: DNA, RNA, and proteins.

These molecules are assembled into long chains called polymers, and are uniquely suited for the roles they play. More importantly, life absolutely depends upon them. We have to have DNA, RNA, and protein all present and active at the same time for a living organism to live.

How they work together so optimally and efficiently is not merely amazing, but also a great enigma, a mystery that lies at the heart of life itself. More. Paywall soon after. May be worth it.

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Comments

[...] further detailed analyses is needed to determine how PUB4 interacts with CLV signaling pathway, [...] sharing such intriguing genetic data will be useful for our understanding of the complex mechanism that control homeostasis in SAM.
Mystery in genetics: PUB4 gives a clue to the complex mechanism of CLV signaling pathway in the shoot apical meristem DOI:10.1080/15592324.2015.1028707 Atsuko Kinoshitaac, Mitsunori Seoa, Yuji Kamiyaa & Shinichiro Sawab Plant Signaling & Behavior Volume 10, Issue 6, 2015 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15592324.2015.1028707

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 23, 2015
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Postembryonic growth and development in higher plants are ultimately reliant on the activity of meristems, where the cells divide frequently to provide source cells for new organs and tissues while in part maintain their pluripotent nature as stem cells. The shoot apical meristem (SAM) is maintained throughout the life of plants and responsible for the development of all areal tissues. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the size of SAM is controlled by a peptide ligand, CLAVATA3 (CLV3). Previously, genetic studies have identified several genes that function downstream of CLV3, many of which, intriguingly, encode receptors. Recently we identified an E3 ubiquitin ligase, PLANT U-BOX 4 (PUB4), as a key regulatory component of root meristem maintenance that functions downstream of an exogenous synthetic CLV3 peptide. Here, we report an additional function of PUB4 in the SAM.
Mystery in genetics: PUB4 gives a clue to the complex mechanism of CLV signaling pathway in the shoot apical meristem DOI:10.1080/15592324.2015.1028707 Atsuko Kinoshitaac, Mitsunori Seoa, Yuji Kamiyaa & Shinichiro Sawab Plant Signaling & Behavior Volume 10, Issue 6, 2015 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15592324.2015.1028707

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 23, 2015
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The human genome mostly consists of DNA that does not encode for protein. Although originally thought to represent evolutionary ‘junk,’ it has been shown that much of the junk DNA in the human genome is actively transcribed to RNA in a highly regulated, tissue-specific manner. Following this insight, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) were demonstrated to be fundamental to many intracellular processes, such as targeting transcription factors to their binding sites, initiating chromatin remodeling, blocking transcription or translation of other genes both in cis and trans, and a variety of other functions that are still being uncovered.
Non-coding RNAs in Neurodevelopmental Disorders http://journal.frontiersin.org/researchtopic/2226/non-coding-rnas-in-neurodevelopmental-disorders

Complex complexity. Work in progress ... stay tuned.Dionisio_{November 22, 2015
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[...] the mechanism identified in C. elegans where let-7 regulates developmental timing functions in a different context in Drosophila to regulate the formation of MB neurons [...]
MicroRNAs: not ‘fine-tuners’ but key regulators of neuronal development and function Gregory Davis1, Matilda Haas1 and Roger Pocock Front. Neurol. | doi: 10.3389/fneur.2015.00245 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fneur.2015.00245/abstract

Same mechanism functions differently in two different contexts: in one context it regulates developmental timing, however in another context it regulates the formation of MB neurons. What exactly* causes the same mechanism to function differently in different contexts? Complex complexity. Work in progress… stay tuned (emphasis mine) (*) some interlocutors in this site don't seem to like my frequent use of the word 'exactly' in my questions. I wonder why... :) Isn't the word 'exactly' valid in scientific inquiring ?Dionisio_{November 22, 2015
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[...] miRNAs are not only involved in controlling gene expression in neurodevelopment, but could be considered among the master regulators of neurogenesis in mammalian cells [...] [...] miRNAs have been implicated in the earliest stages of mammalian brain development, and regulate important pathways in development and disease. [...] miRNA pathways appear to be required for survival of peripheral nervous system (PNS) neurons [...] [...] individual studies have reported slightly different mechanisms. Whether this is due to [...] is not clear.
MicroRNAs: not ‘fine-tuners’ but key regulators of neuronal development and function Gregory Davis1, Matilda Haas1 and Roger Pocock Front. Neurol. | doi: 10.3389/fneur.2015.00245 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fneur.2015.00245/abstract

Complex complexity Work in progress… stay tunedDionisio_{November 22, 2015
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Due to the high degree of conservation between model organisms and humans the elucidation of molecular mechanisms that control neuronal development using these models will help identify novel therapeutic approaches in the future.
MicroRNAs: not ‘fine-tuners’ but key regulators of neuronal development and function Gregory Davis1, Matilda Haas1 and Roger Pocock Front. Neurol. | doi: 10.3389/fneur.2015.00245 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fneur.2015.00245/abstract

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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The anatomical and functional complexity of brain requires the precise coordination of multi-layered gene regulatory networks. The flexibility, speed and reversibility of miRNA function provide precise temporal and spatial gene regulatory capabilities that are crucial for the correct functioning of the brain.
MicroRNAs: not ‘fine-tuners’ but key regulators of neuronal development and function Gregory Davis1, Matilda Haas1 and Roger Pocock Front. Neurol. | doi: 10.3389/fneur.2015.00245 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fneur.2015.00245/abstract

Complex complexityDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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[...] the majority of the differentially expressed noncoding RNAs have unknown functions and will require further experimentation to identify their functional properties. [...] it is likely that the noncoding RNAs identified in the neural differentiation-associated modules hold regulatory properties [...] [...] further experiments are needed to investigate the individual functions of these RNA transcripts. The identification of noncoding RNAs showing highly correlated expression patterns with protein coding genes using WGCNA lays the foundation for future explorations into the functional properties of these non-protein coding transcripts.
Noncoding RNA in the transcriptional landscape of human neural progenitor cell differentiation Patrick M. Hecht1, Inmaculada Ballesteros-Yanez2, Nicole Grepo1, James A. Knowles1,3 and Daniel B. Campbell Front. Neurosci. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392/abstract

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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[...] noncoding RNAs likely show cell type specificity [...] [...] further experimentation is needed to address these questions.
Noncoding RNA in the transcriptional landscape of human neural progenitor cell differentiation Patrick M. Hecht1, Inmaculada Ballesteros-Yanez2, Nicole Grepo1, James A. Knowles1,3 and Daniel B. Campbell Front. Neurosci. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392/abstract

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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The differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into human cortical projection neurons involves a complex network of coordinated changes in gene expression. With the growing appreciation that noncoding RNAs play critical roles in the regulation of gene expression, it is likely that noncoding RNAs are crucial for proper neurogenesis and differentiation.
Noncoding RNA in the transcriptional landscape of human neural progenitor cell differentiation Patrick M. Hecht1, Inmaculada Ballesteros-Yanez2, Nicole Grepo1, James A. Knowles1,3 and Daniel B. Campbell Front. Neurosci. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392/abstract

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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humans have been shown to express one of the largest quantities of noncoding RNAs with these transcripts showing dynamic expression patterns in the developing brain. it is likely that these non-protein coding transcripts play key regulatory roles in the neurodevelopmental processes contributing to the complexities observed in the human brain. the gene networks regulated by noncoding RNAs can then be inferred through the functional properties of their co-expressed protein coding genes.
Noncoding RNA in the transcriptional landscape of human neural progenitor cell differentiation Patrick M. Hecht1, Inmaculada Ballesteros-Yanez2, Nicole Grepo1, James A. Knowles1,3 and Daniel B. Campbell Front. Neurosci. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392/abstract

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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[...] studies investigating the molecular dynamics of neural differentiation have focused on the role of protein coding genes while largely ignoring noncoding RNAs.
Noncoding RNA in the transcriptional landscape of human neural progenitor cell differentiation Patrick M. Hecht1, Inmaculada Ballesteros-Yanez2, Nicole Grepo1, James A. Knowles1,3 and Daniel B. Campbell Front. Neurosci. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392/abstract

Why did they ignore that substantial part? Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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Once thought to be transcriptional noise, these noncoding RNAs are emerging as key regulatory elements of gene expression. While several noncoding RNAs have been shown to be important in various biological processes, including cell differentiation, the functions of most noncoding RNA transcripts are unknown.
Noncoding RNA in the transcriptional landscape of human neural progenitor cell differentiation Patrick M. Hecht1, Inmaculada Ballesteros-Yanez2, Nicole Grepo1, James A. Knowles1,3 and Daniel B. Campbell Front. Neurosci. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392/abstract

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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Recent advances in genomics technology have unveiled the complexities of the mammalian transcriptome. It is now understood that most of the genome is transcribed with less than 2% encoding for protein resulting in a vast and largely uncharacterized landscape of non-protein coding RNAs.
Noncoding RNA in the transcriptional landscape of human neural progenitor cell differentiation Patrick M. Hecht1, Inmaculada Ballesteros-Yanez2, Nicole Grepo1, James A. Knowles1,3 and Daniel B. Campbell Front. Neurosci. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392/abstract

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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Increasing evidence suggests that noncoding RNAs play key roles in cellular processes, particularly in the brain. Neural differentiation is a complex biological process requiring precise regulation of gene expression. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this transcriptional control remain largely unknown.
Noncoding RNA in the transcriptional landscape of human neural progenitor cell differentiation Patrick M. Hecht1, Inmaculada Ballesteros-Yanez2, Nicole Grepo1, James A. Knowles1,3 and Daniel B. Campbell Front. Neurosci. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2015.00392/abstract

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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More complete analysis of other tissues will be needed to determine whether this conclusion can be extended to tissue-specific versus more widely expressed lncRNAs. Future studies measuring gene expression for specific cell types captured by fluorescence-activated cell sorting and/or laser capture microdissection will be able to facilitate the assessment and evaluate whether the differentially expressed lncRNAs in skin tissues are cell intrinsic or due to the change in cellular proportions.
Analysis of long non-coding RNAs highlights tissue-specific expression patterns and epigenetic profiles in normal and psoriatic skin Lam C Tsoi1, Matthew K Iyer2, Philip E Stuart3, William R Swindell3, Johann E Gudjonsson3, Trilokraj Tejasvi34, Mrinal K Sarkar3, Bingshan Li15, Jun Ding16, John J Voorhees3, Hyun M Kang1, Rajan P Nair3, Arul M Chinnaiyan278, Goncalo R Abecasis1* and James T Elder349* Genome Biology 2015, 16:24 doi:10.1186/s13059-014-0570-4 http://www.genomebiology.com/2015/16/1/24

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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[...] the structural rules governing lncRNA function are just now beginning to come to light As the roles of lncRNAs in other human autoimmune diseases have not yet been fully identified and understood, this analysis should provide valuable resource and information for the future studies. [...] we would speculate that many more tissue-specific lncRNAs remain to be identified in other tissue/cell types.
Analysis of long non-coding RNAs highlights tissue-specific expression patterns and epigenetic profiles in normal and psoriatic skin Lam C Tsoi1, Matthew K Iyer2, Philip E Stuart3, William R Swindell3, Johann E Gudjonsson3, Trilokraj Tejasvi34, Mrinal K Sarkar3, Bingshan Li15, Jun Ding16, John J Voorhees3, Hyun M Kang1, Rajan P Nair3, Arul M Chinnaiyan278, Goncalo R Abecasis1* and James T Elder349* Genome Biology 2015, 16:24 doi:10.1186/s13059-014-0570-4 http://www.genomebiology.com/2015/16/1/24

Complex complexity Work in progress... stay tunedDionisio_{November 21, 2015
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Although analysis pipelines have been developed to use RNA-seq to identify long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), inference of their biological and pathological relevance remains a challenge. As a result, most transcriptome studies of autoimmune disease have only assessed protein-coding transcripts. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have received much attention in the past several years. Coincident with improved annotation of functional element, it has been appreciated that a large portion of the genome is transcribed during the course of development, much of which represents lncRNA.
Analysis of long non-coding RNAs highlights tissue-specific expression patterns and epigenetic profiles in normal and psoriatic skin Lam C Tsoi1, Matthew K Iyer2, Philip E Stuart3, William R Swindell3, Johann E Gudjonsson3, Trilokraj Tejasvi34, Mrinal K Sarkar3, Bingshan Li15, Jun Ding16, John J Voorhees3, Hyun M Kang1, Rajan P Nair3, Arul M Chinnaiyan278, Goncalo R Abecasis1* and James T Elder349* Genome Biology 2015, 16:24 doi:10.1186/s13059-014-0570-4 http://www.genomebiology.com/2015/16/1/24

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[...] further investigations of miR-17 on hematopoiesis in vivo raises the possibility that miR-17 may play a wider role in regulating hematopoietic development. The mechanisms underlying the enhanced expression of adhesive molecules in CB CD34 + cells upon ectopic miR-17 are largely unclear and will be explored further in our laboratory. [...] further studies are still needed to get a more detailed expression profile of miR-17 in human CB HSCs based on the more precise hierarchy model.
miR-17 promotes expansion and adhesion of human cord blood CD34 + cells in vitro Yuxia Yang1, Saifeng Wang2, Zhenchuan Miao3, Wei Ma4, Yanju Zhang5, Li Su6, Mengyu Hu1, Junhua Zou1, Yuxin Yin2* and Jianyuan Luo17* Stem Cell Research & Therapy 2015, 6:168 doi:10.1186/s13287-015-0159-1 http://www.stemcellres.com/content/6/1/168

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[...] markers of active transcription, including the histone acetyltransferase CBP and TFIIB, are significantly enriched at Kap1 binding sites (37,38), although this hypothesis needs further verification. [...] the reason for repression failure in the spleen and thymus needs to be further examined. Differences in repression efficiency between irreversible and reversible regulation also reflect differences in regulatory mechanisms.
The Krüppel-associated box repressor domain induces reversible and irreversible regulation of endogenous mouse genes by mediating different chromatin states Yue Ying1,†, Xingyu Yang1,†, Kai Zhao1, Jifang Mao2, Ying Kuang2, Zhugang Wang2, Ruilin Sun2,* and Jian Fei1,2,* Nucl. Acids Res. 43 (3): 1549-1561. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkv016 http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/43/3/1549.full

Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 18, 2015
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[...] loss-of-function studies will be required to determine the functional roles of KRAB-ZFPs. [...] the repetitive and clustered characteristics of KRAB-ZFP genes [...] remain a major obstacle. [...] mapping of gene-trap insertions at repetitive genes is problematic as well. [...] new strategies will be needed to test the biological requirements of individual KRAB-ZFPs. [...] little is known about the time it takes for KRAB-ZFPs to evolve to bind newly emerged sequences such as ERVs. It is also somewhat puzzling how KRAB-ZFPs can keep up with active and therefore mutating ERVs.
Spotting the enemy within: Targeted silencing of foreign DNA in mammalian genomes by the Krüppel-associated box zinc finger protein family Gernot Wolf, David Greenberg and Todd S. Macfarlan Mobile DNA 2015, 6:17 doi:10.1186/s13100-015-0050-8 http://www.mobilednajournal.com/content/6/1/17

Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 18, 2015
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A key to understanding the KRAB-ZFPs that function as DNA binding transcription factors is to determine their genome-wide binding patterns. KRAB-ZFP binding prediction without experimental testing remains highly unreliable.
Spotting the enemy within: Targeted silencing of foreign DNA in mammalian genomes by the Krüppel-associated box zinc finger protein family Gernot Wolf, David Greenberg and Todd S. Macfarlan Mobile DNA 2015, 6:17 doi:10.1186/s13100-015-0050-8 http://www.mobilednajournal.com/content/6/1/17

Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 18, 2015
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Despite recent progress, KRAB-ZFPs are not only one of the largest but also one of the least understood transcription factor families in mammals. [...] many functional KRAB-ZFP genes might not even be annotated yet [...] [...] alternative splice isoforms may additionally contribute to the diversity of expressed KRAB-ZFPs. [...] it is possible that some tandem-ZFPs function outside the nucleus. [...] some KRAB-ZFPs do not act as DNA binding transcription factors. Cross-linking and immunoprecipitation followed by RNA sequencing (CLIP-seq) analysis [...] might yield novel insights into RNA biology and RNA recognition.
Spotting the enemy within: Targeted silencing of foreign DNA in mammalian genomes by the Krüppel-associated box zinc finger protein family Gernot Wolf, David Greenberg and Todd S. Macfarlan Mobile DNA 2015, 6:17 doi:10.1186/s13100-015-0050-8 http://www.mobilednajournal.com/content/6/1/17

Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 18, 2015
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[...] the highly repetitive nature of tandem-ZFP genes, especially at the ZNF coding regions, makes SNP calling extremely challenging and might have resulted in an underestimation of such polymorphisms. [...] a thorough analysis of high coverage genome sequencing data and 100 bp paired-end RNA-seq data might lead to the identification of physiologically relevant KRAB-ZFP polymorphisms in humans.
Spotting the enemy within: Targeted silencing of foreign DNA in mammalian genomes by the Krüppel-associated box zinc finger protein family Gernot Wolf, David Greenberg and Todd S. Macfarlan Mobile DNA 2015, 6:17 doi:10.1186/s13100-015-0050-8 http://www.mobilednajournal.com/content/6/1/17

Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 18, 2015
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Little is known about how a loss-of-function mutation of a single ERE-targeting KRAB-ZFP would affect the host organism. [...] reactivation of a replication-competent ERV or a high-copy retrotransposon could have immediate deleterious consequences for the host [...] [...] deleterious effects might have emerged in later generations. [...] might impair the host only under certain circumstances, [...]
Spotting the enemy within: Targeted silencing of foreign DNA in mammalian genomes by the Krüppel-associated box zinc finger protein family Gernot Wolf, David Greenberg and Todd S. Macfarlan Mobile DNA 2015, 6:17 doi:10.1186/s13100-015-0050-8 http://www.mobilednajournal.com/content/6/1/17

Bottom line, an experiment may fail to reveal a particular functionality that potentially could be associated with a targeted component of a system, because the effect of a given change could manifest later, or under different circumstances. Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 18, 2015
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Future work on KRAB-ZFP knockout mouse models and genome-wide association studies of human KRAB-ZFP polymorphisms will reveal how a failure of the KRAB-ZFP ERE repression system impacts fitness and health of a host.
Spotting the enemy within: Targeted silencing of foreign DNA in mammalian genomes by the Krüppel-associated box zinc finger protein family Gernot Wolf, David Greenberg and Todd S. Macfarlan Mobile DNA 2015, 6:17 doi:10.1186/s13100-015-0050-8 http://www.mobilednajournal.com/content/6/1/17

Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 18, 2015
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It is increasingly evident that transposable elements have a profound impact on mammals. Therefore, understanding the factors that keep these elements under control is of high importance for both basic and applied medical research. [...] since only a very small number of KRAB-ZFPs have been thoroughly investigated, the true spectrum of KRAB-ZFP functions cannot be anticipated yet. Without doubt, future research will yield exciting and unexpected insights into this enigmatic protein family.
Spotting the enemy within: Targeted silencing of foreign DNA in mammalian genomes by the Krüppel-associated box zinc finger protein family Gernot Wolf, David Greenberg and Todd S. Macfarlan Mobile DNA 2015, 6:17 doi:10.1186/s13100-015-0050-8 http://www.mobilednajournal.com/content/6/1/17

"...exciting and unexpected..."? I understand "exciting" (most probably an understatement in this case), but "unexpected"? Why unexpected? Do they expect something at this point? What is it? :) Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 18, 2015
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The maintenance of epigenetic states with either repressive or permissive properties at specific loci is a key process in early embryonic development. [...] the studies so far are too limited to draw firm conclusions [...] ICRs have the unique property of maintaining the DNA-methylated and the unmethylated status on the opposite parental alleles.
ZFP57 recognizes multiple and closely spaced sequence motif variants to maintain repressive epigenetic marks in mouse embryonic stem cells Zahra Anvar1,2,†, Marco Cammisa1,2,†, Vincenzo Riso1,2,†, Ilaria Baglivo2, Harpreet Kukreja1,2, Angela Sparago1,2, Michael Girardot3, Shraddha Lad1, Italia De Feis4, Flavia Cerrato2, Claudia Angelini4, Robert Feil3, Paolo V. Pedone2, Giovanna Grimaldi1,5 and Andrea Riccio1,2,* Nucl. Acids Res. (2015) doi: 10.1093/nar/gkv1059 http://intl-nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2015/10/19/nar.gkv1059.abstract

Complex complexityDionisio_{November 17, 2015
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Execution of the first lineage decision in mammalian embryogenesis requires that cells in the preimplantation stage embryo alter their gene expression programmes from that found in a totipotent cell to those defining either a pluripotent (e.g. ICM) cell or a multipotent (TE) cell.
STEM CELLS AND REGENERATION Constraint of gene expression by the chromatin remodelling protein CHD4 facilitates lineage specification Aoife O'Shaughnessy-Kirwan, Jason Signolet, Ita Costello, Sarah Gharbi, Brian Hendrich Development 2015 142: 2586-2597; doi: 10.1242/dev.125450 http://dev.biologists.org/content/142/15/2586

Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 17, 2015
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The first morphologically distinguishable lineage division during mammalian embryogenesis occurs when totipotent cells of cleavage stage embryos form either the inner cell mass (ICM), which generates the pluripotent cells that will go on to form the embryo proper; or the trophectoderm (TE), which will go on to form extra-embryonic tissues. Successful resolution of this first lineage decision is known to depend upon the activity of chromatin-modifying proteins, but exactly how the activity of these key chromatin modifiers facilitates formation of specific cell lineages remains ill-defined.
STEM CELLS AND REGENERATION Constraint of gene expression by the chromatin remodelling protein CHD4 facilitates lineage specification Aoife O'Shaughnessy-Kirwan, Jason Signolet, Ita Costello, Sarah Gharbi, Brian Hendrich Development 2015 142: 2586-2597; doi: 10.1242/dev.125450 http://dev.biologists.org/content/142/15/2586

Complex complexity Work in progress ... stay tunedDionisio_{November 17, 2015
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