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Darwinian Debating Device #20: The “Whataboutism” Tactic

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Whataboutism (also known as whataboutery) is a variant of the tu quoque logical fallacy that attempts to discredit an opponent’s position by charging them with hypocrisy without directly refuting or disproving their argument.  How did CR employ it here?  Let’s examine it step-by-step.

For example, the vignette Becky’s Lesson is set in an alternate history in which the Nazis won World War II, conquered the world, and completed their Final Solution by completely eradicating all 13 million Jews.  In the story, the Nazis control all media and education.  They control society with an iron fist and have indoctrinated the society they control to celebrate The Final Solution as a great good, instead of an unspeakable evil.  The obvious purpose of the story is to refute the lame materialist assertion that we see all-too-many times in these pages that “morality comes from society.”  The story exposes the vacuity of this position by demonstrating that if society determines morality, the Holocaust would have been moral if the Nazis had won the war and controlled societal discourse.

A commenter who goes by “Critical Rationalist” responded to the story not by disputing its logic but by trying to change the subject.  CR does not want to talk about Europe in living memory.  He wants to talk about the Old Testament stories about the conquest of Canaan over 3,000 years.

Let us say for the sake of argument that CR is right; that the Israelite conquest of Canaan was an example of evil ethnic cleansing.  How is that a response to the point of Becky’s Lesson?  Of course it is not.

The whole point of CR’s whataboutism ploy is not to refute the logic of the story, but to change the subject.  And why is CR so desperate to change the subject?  Because he knows as well as anyone that materialists such as he have no answer to the logic of Becky’s Lesson.  And instead of admitting that basic truth, they will go to any length to avoid addressing it.

 

Comments
sigh...so little intellectual integrity....Whats new atheists who hang out on blogs they don't agree with? "But, using your own definition, the holocaust was not a genocide because there were plenty of Jews outside of Europe." Not even close to my argument. Rather a genocide would not have had Hitler saving Jews, making no command for the continuing slaughter of Jews and would have been based on an inclusion in a race or people not guilt of a crime or future crime. You've failed yet again to make a logical equivalence. The texts are clear that the basis of the punishment was on the merits of their being guilty of such crimes (and future guilt) not their status as a people or race. " If you want to argue that God changed his mind, I am fine with that, but you might have to contend with the ire of some Christians." I have no need to argue God changed his mind because you ignore context and clarification in a text. That doesn't even stand as a logical claim in our own judicial systems. We make blanket statements and yet have clauses for leniency, forgiveness and mitigating circumstances over and over again in our law - all without contradiction or inconsistency. Forgiveness is a constant context more than anything ele in the Bible. You'll fail miserably trying to argue forgiveness is an inconsistency. Its a continuity from Genesis to Revelation. If all that wasn't enough you just ignored that the text applied and always applied to the taking of a city - not a general "kill all canaanites wherever you find them going forward". Lets face it. You finally read the text and realize you have no genocide (except the one you made up in your head based on quote mining) so you are just spinning your wheels trying to claim theres an inconsistency since your equivalence claim fell flat - its only resulted in yet another fallng flat. and having fell flat twice you now go for the trifecta "Again, I can accept that as an argument, but then it brings up another inconsistency. If God knows the future of everyone, then we don’t have free will, something the bible says that God gave us." If at first and second you don't succeed try try again to some other topic. A) God's knowing all things has nothing to do with your choices. Its still your choice. B) you have a misunderstanding of the nature of God knowing the future. He lives in the future, in the present and in the past. Time as we know it is his invention. He doesn't have a crystal ball looking to the future. he is in that future as it happens. Don't be too sad or feel too foolish. Most atheists are equally dreadful at understanding theology before they bumble over it. Unfortunately actually applying oneself to understanding what it is you are objecting to is part of intellectual honesty. "These people have to twist logic and stand on their heads to rationalize the inconsistencies in order to maintain their illusions." You ought to know something about the last part. You twisted and rationalized constantly in this thread to maintain your illusions that you even knew what you were talking about in the text. When met with things you didn't know you just switched to another claim each with no basis in reality (including the quote above). I can see now Why Barry doesn't even want to address many of you on certain issues. He knew your MO.mikeenders
March 11, 2018
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Mike,
I addressed that in another thread but the text itself has the answer – it was the concern for the future that was the issue.
I was referring to the slaughter of the Canaanites as a crime against humanity, not a genocide. But, using your own definition, the holocaust was not a genocide because there were plenty of Jews outside of Europe.
In all my years of hearing inconsistencies I have yet to find any that has panned out without ignoring context, culture, or the written text itself.
What is the context between God commanding the Israelites to kill everything that breathe in one verse, and then to command to take the women and children as plunder to do with as they will? If you want to argue that God changed his mind, I am fine with that, but you might have to contend with the ire of some Christians.
God doesn’t have a time issue. He knows the man as well as the child. So If I get transported in time back to a five year old hitler – Do I take the shot If I know what the man will do? Yes. I pull the trigger. Under what rational construct is it evil for me to do so given that knowledge.
If I am reading this and it’s preceding paragraph correctly, God ordered the killing of the infants because he knew they would all grow up to be evil people. Again, I can accept that as an argument, but then it brings up another inconsistency. If God knows the future of everyone, then we don’t have free will, something the bible says that God gave us. As I mentioned earlier, I don’t have a problem with the inconsistencies. They are to be expected of a document written by people over hundreds of years as separated texts and then compiled by humans into a single tome. In spite of that it is an excellent text with entertaining and educational stories with much valid advice, and some not so valid. My problem is with people who view it as literal fact and the inerrant word of God. These people have to twist logic and stand on their heads to rationalize the inconsistencies in order to maintain their illusions.Allan Keith
March 11, 2018
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AK @78 "all you are showing is that there are glaring inconsistency in the bible. At one part it says that they are instructed to kill everyone." Ridiculous but just about as weak as all the other alleged inconsistencies sceptics claim. We have statutes on the books that indicate no one is allowed to murder someone else without being punished as a murderer. We then state elsewhere clauses with exceptions (mental illness etc) and clarifications (such as age). No one claims that as "glaring inconsistency". They take that as a further clarification. The one thing obvious in the Bible is that no declaration of punishment is universal due to the nature of God. Thats the whole meaning of the word forgiveness (predicated on repentance). The guilty party under the command escapes the applicable declared punishment. That God spared some is ho hum - God being God. The situation with the canaanites is even worse for your argument. It only involved People in the city during conquest not a command for ongoing genocide which was John's point. You are merely again ignoring the text. In fact if you read more than the "quote mined" portion you would see that its part of an entire section with admonishments that particularly involves a military approach to a city. "But the fact that there are inconsistencies in the bible is known and accepted by everyone." FALSE and UTTERLY FALSE. You do need to educate yourself on the millions of people on this planet that accept no such thing. In all my years of hearing inconsistencies I have yet to find any that has panned out without ignoring context, culture, or the written text itself. In your case you are trying to claim further contextual clarification is inconsistency which doesn't logically follow in any other writing.mikeenders
March 11, 2018
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Ak @ 79 "Please explain to me how killing Canaanite infants is a morally acceptable reaction to infanticude? It is the killing of the children that I find to be the evil act here that is comparable to the holocaust." I addressed that in another thread but the text itself has the answer - it was the concern for the future that was the issue. Focusing in on a rational rather than emotional discussion - At what age do we stop having a great love of the innocence of children? 14? 17? 18? 22? Because we DO lose that sense with the passing of time. We don't have THAT moral outrage of a child being killed after a given amount of time passes (and the same child is an adult). God doesn't have a time issue. He knows the man as well as the child. So If I get transported in time back to a five year old hitler - Do I take the shot If I know what the man will do? Yes. I pull the trigger. Under what rational construct is it evil for me to do so given that knowledge. The issue has nothing to do with whether you believe in such God or his omniscience. Too often atheists mix their point of view into their argument. basically - no such god exists that could know the outcome of those childrens lives so its evil. Thats not definitive. In reality its an argument thats circular.mikeenders
March 11, 2018
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F/N: Observe how studiously this 101 as linked in 36 above is dodged. Almost as telling is the question as to whether our reasoning is governed by duties of care to truth, right, justice, etc. One who actually denies this or more subtly undermines it implies that rational powers are little more than cynical, clever devices for manipulation and deception, opening the door to nihilism. That is absurd, it undermines reasoned discussion, warrant for knowledge, education and a responsible public discussion -- resemblance to what is commonly seen nowadays is NOT coincidental. So, we must face the implication that there are self-evident moral truths that govern us, starting with our rational faculties. This means that we are responsibly, rationally, significantly free and morally governed. It also implies that creatures such as we are live in a world where morality is well-founded; which can only be done at world-root level. That in turn raises serious issues as to what sort of root our world has sprung from. Those, I outlined in 36 and have mentioned again above. In that context, we may soundly address particular issues and concerns with some robustness and soundness. We can take it to the bank that the persistent attempt to dodge the core issues is a strong sign that we are not dealing with responsible, sound discussion but with the implications of a day in which we are drowning our civilisation in a sea of polarising manipulation and ultimately suicidal agendas. BA is quite right on his main point in the OP. KFkairosfocus
March 10, 2018
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Mike,
And under what rational context would that be a genocide?
If you read my other comments you will note that I prefer the term crime against humanity. I think the term genocide is overused.
Plus we are now being offerad an argument based on a false equivalence. Killing people based on their race equals killing people involved in infanticide and other extreme forms of evil.
Please explain to me how killing Canaanite infants is a morally acceptable reaction to infanticude? It is the killing of the children that I find to be the evil act here that is comparable to the holocaust.Allan Keith
March 10, 2018
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JAD@77, all you are showing is that there are glaring inconsistency in the bible. At one part it says that they are instructed to kill everyone. At another only to kill the women and do whatever they want with the women and children. But the fact that there are inconsistencies in the bible is known and accepted by everyone. So, according to these instructions the citizens have a choice between forced slavery or death and rape to their women. All for trying to keep their homes and land. Seems rather harsh. But let’s go with your version. Are you suggesting that forced slavery is morally acceptable. Or the rape of women? Surely those are universally and objectively evil, regardless of the time and place. Or is this another one of those acts that are not evil if you are instructed to do it by God?Allan Keith
March 10, 2018
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You’re cherry picking Allan,
10 “When you draw near to a city to fight against it, offer terms of peace to it. 11 And if it responds to you peaceably and it opens to you, then all the people who are found in it shall do forced labor for you and shall serve you. 12 But if it makes no peace with you, but makes war against you, then you shall besiege it. 13 And when the Lord your God gives it into your hand, you shall put all its males to the sword, 14 but the women and the little ones, the livestock, and everything else in the city, all its spoil, you shall take as plunder for yourselves. (Deuteronomy 20:10-14)
That is not an absolute universal command to commit genocide, quite the opposite. I remember one of the first things the professor in my Biblical Hermeneutics class taught us was that “a text without a context is pretext.” You ought to do your homework first, Allan, before you start making fun of Biblical literalists. BTW my approach to Biblical interpretation is basically the same as Pascal’s who said there are two wrong ways to interpret scripture: interpret everything literally and interpret everything figuratively… Please do not make presumptions about what I think and believe.john_a_designer
March 10, 2018
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"Only ignorant people ignore context" Plus we are now being offerad an argument based on a false equivalence. Killing people based on their race equals killing people involved in infanticide and other extreme forms of evil.mikeenders
March 10, 2018
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Allan Keith @71 "That seems pretty absolute to me." And under what rational context would that be a genocide? You quoted "But in the cities of these peoples". At the time cities neither contained all the canaanites nor did a city refer to an entire area as it does today. they were relatively small usually walled areas. Further the actions taken started out with the command to save a canaanite family and all their extended family. Those making a genocide argument simply ignore what actually was the case and the inconvenient verses that show them wrong. Thats the problem with this discussion. Both sides are just talking from them their talking points (and one side chopping passages out of context to suit themselves like they elsewhere claim creationists do). I don't recall either a definition for genocide, a discussion of why why its wrong or even a definition for evil thats based on anything rational. Its mostly emotional and irrational.mikeenders
March 10, 2018
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Just as the holocaust is evil, regardless of the times and the context, the killing of the Canaanite women and children is also evil, regardless of the times and context.
Only ignorant people ignore contextET
March 10, 2018
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Allan Keith:
If the practices and acts of the villagers are confirmed to be true, would they be morally justified to kill everyone in the village?
If they observed everyone killing children, yes.ET
March 10, 2018
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JAD @70 "There is no absolute universal command in the OT text that commands genocide against the Canaanites. All the commands are in the context of military assault. Allan who doesn’t know what he is talking about is now making stuff up. He is either daft (that’s a polite way to say clueless or ignorant), disdainful or dishonest." Thats the thing. Its this claim of a genocide that gives the atheist the only cover they have not to answer the question of objective morality. Thats why its best to just deal with it.mikeenders
March 10, 2018
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JAD,
There is no absolute universal command in the OT text that commands genocide against the Canaanites.
Deuteronomy, chapter 20 16: But in the cities of these peoples that the LORD your God gives you for an inheritance, you shall save alive nothing that breathes, 17: but you shall utterly destroy them, the Hittites and the Amorites, the Canaanites and the Per'izzites, the Hivites and the Jeb'usites, as the LORD your God has commanded; 18: that they may not teach you to do according to all their abominable practices which they have done in the service of their gods, and so to sin against the LORD your God.
That seems pretty absolute to me. But my argument is not with you. You do not see the bible as literal truth. As I don’t. My argument is against those who read the bible as literal truth and believe that the killing of the Canaanite women and children was morally acceptable because God instructed the Israelites to do it. Just as the holocaust is evil, regardless of the times and the context, the killing of the Canaanite women and children is also evil, regardless of the times and context.Allan Keith
March 10, 2018
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There is no absolute universal command in the OT text that commands genocide against the Canaanites. All the commands are in the context of military assault. Allan who doesn’t know what he is talking about is now making stuff up. He is either daft (that’s a polite way to say clueless or ignorant), disdainful or dishonest. To have an honest discussion or debate you have to begin with factually true premises or propositions. The proposition I have italicized above is factually true. You can prove it yourself by reading the relevant OT texts.john_a_designer
March 10, 2018
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ET,
In that case the soldiers would sprout wings, do a fly over and see for themselves.
If the practices and acts of the villagers are confirmed to be true, would they be morally justified to kill everyone in the village?Allan Keith
March 10, 2018
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Allan Keith:
What if the general claimed that God told him to do this because he wanted the Americans to have the village and that the villagers practiced sorcery, witchcraft, idolatry, every kind of sexual immorality and child sacrifice?
In that case the soldiers would sprout wings, do a fly over and see for themselves.ET
March 10, 2018
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RVB8 [Attn AK and CR, J-Mac et al], a loaded question is not simple or straightforward. A loaded, toxic question needs to be answered in light of underlying agendas of issues and the likelihood of twisting of an answer that is naive. (Funny, I was dealing with that in a strategic change management context just yesterday: a "simple" answer to a loaded question does little more than allow a trap to be sprung.) Meanwhile THIRTY comments later, objectors have shown no sign of examining a 101 on the subject of their question; cf. the linked from 36 above. In short, for coming on a day, a 101 level answer has been on the table, just that it has been studiously evaded. That tells us that we are not dealing with straightforwardness. That now patently goes to showing more interest in pushing what is commonly used as a "shut up" rhetorical talking point than a serious position. And, sadly, it reveals the force of the issue raised in 36, that the first point of contact for moral government is our rational faculty itself. As in,
are we under objective moral government, starting with government of the rational faculties used to discuss issues. If not, those faculties are little more than clever tools of cynical manipulation; destroying reasoned discussion — something that all too aptly explains the patent approach of too many political, media and even academic voices today: might and/or manipulation make ‘right’ ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ ‘justice’ etc. If yes, then we do have to address the grounding of morality and the world root level solution of the IS-OUGHT gap as context for evaluating any particular moral issue or talking point. Which, makes all the difference in how we approach such issues. And no, I will not be drawn into debating perceptions and feelings in absence of a clear understanding of the underlying foundational matters at stake; e.g. that there are self-evident moral truths which thus are universal and cannot be effectively denied or dismissed without falling at once into patent absurdity.
KFkairosfocus
March 10, 2018
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Note that rvb8 still hasn’t addressed the question put to him about whether he considers providing the semi-starving part of the world with a rich source of nutritious protein as somehow immoral. He just seems to disappear (for a while) or jump to another thread! ;-) -QQuerius
March 9, 2018
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ET,
It would depend on the context.
What if the general claimed that God told him to do this because he wanted the Americans to have the village and that the villagers practiced sorcery, witchcraft, idolatry, every kind of sexual immorality and child sacrifice?Allan Keith
March 9, 2018
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‘Is it acceptable for a general in the US Marines to order the murder of an entire village of non-combatants?’
It would depend on the context. If said village is rife with incurable and fatal disease that would wipe out most of the civilized world if not eradicated, then it would be immoral not to.ET
March 9, 2018
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Alan Keith@ 58, forget it. The concept of answering a simpe straight forward question such as, 'Is it acceptable for a general in the US Marines to order the murder of an entire village of non-combatants?', is beyond these people. (In answer to this, God says fine, the US Congress says, 'war crime'. Give me Human morality any day.) Like kairos they will hand wave, point you to Plato, (Plato? In defense of Christ?), or like Barry, create fatuous scenarios, and then stomp their petulent feet.rvb8
March 9, 2018
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CR @
CR: The contents of moral knowledge, like all knowledge, starts out as a conjecture, which is controlled by criticism.
1. Per your own ‘anti-justification-theory’, everything you say is unjustified conjecture. Therefore there is no reason at all to take it seriously. 2. Your own theory states “no theory can be established neither as certainly true nor even as ‘probable’” (Popper), so, the theory “all knowledge starts out as a conjecture” cannot be established as certainly true nor even as probable. Again, there is no reason at all to take it seriously. The same goes for your theory that criticism controls conjecture.
CR: Reason always comes first.
Your own theory does not allow you to make such upbeat statements — “no theory can be established neither as certainly true nor even as ‘probable’” remember? Practice what you preach. And BTW why should ‘observation’ not come first? Why should reason not be informed (justified) by observation? Ah! I see. Because you do not like ‘justificationism’, right? You want your conjecture completely estranged from everything else. And this is how you like your ‘criticism’ as well. Both come from nowhere: pure and completely unjustified. Astounding nonsense.
CR: Otherwise, you would need some way to infallibly identity an infallible source of moral values, infallibly interpret them and infallibly determine when to defer to them.
Wrong analyses. As a comparison, we both know that internet exists, but in order to know this we do not need absolute (infallible) knowledge about the specifics. Similarly, in order to know that there is objective morality we do not need to know every aspect of it.
CR: As of yet, you haven’t explained how that is possible.
Another idiotic requirement. As a comparison, I do not have to explain by what means the mind (or the brain) applies logic, before I apply logic. Nor do I need to explain how the internet works, before I can use it.
CR: His own approach derives from the view that pure and certain sources do not exist, and that questions of origin or of purity should not be confounded with questions of validity, or of truth.
Utter stupidity by Bartley, made possible by the blunder of not applying his own nonsense to himself. Bartley’s statements are so self-defeating that I do not know where to begin.Origenes
March 9, 2018
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Quaesitor,
But what is the standard God uses to determine what is good, and where does it come from? “There is a way that seems right to a man, but its end is the way to death.” — Proverbs 14:12
The problem with the way that a man sees is that he cannot see the end. But the Creator simultaneously exists at all points in time and does indeed know the end. But what is good? As far as the scriptures, there seems to be good, very good, and perfect. In creation, there are some things that are just "good" within the constraints of the physical laws and fine tuning that the Creator established by his Word (remember that scientists specializing in Quantum Mechanics now believe that information is the fundamental nature of existence). Good is OK when it expresses the loving and creative nature of the Creator. -QQuerius
March 9, 2018
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AK, you clearly still have not read the linked from 36, which discusses the issue with significant onward relevant context; it also happens to be something I wrote some years ago as a part of a 101. On fair comment, that apparent refusal to interact with even a 101 level, initial answer tends to suggest that BA is right about the basic, red herring led away to strawman problem. And, the underlying issue is still there as context: are we under objective moral government, starting with government of the rational faculties used to discuss issues. If not, those faculties are little more than clever tools of cynical manipulation; destroying reasoned discussion -- something that all too aptly explains the patent approach of too many political, media and even academic voices today: might and/or manipulation make 'right' 'truth' 'knowledge' 'justice' etc. If yes, then we do have to address the grounding of morality and the world root level solution of the IS-OUGHT gap as context for evaluating any particular moral issue or talking point. Which, makes all the difference in how we approach such issues. And no, I will not be drawn into debating perceptions and feelings in absence of a clear understanding of the underlying foundational matters at stake; e.g. that there are self-evident moral truths which thus are universal and cannot be effectively denied or dismissed without falling at once into patent absurdity. KFkairosfocus
March 9, 2018
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@CR // follow-up #54 //
Popper: Similarly, it [scientific criticism] does not try to show that the theory in question has not been established or justified - because no theory can be established or justified.
1. No theory can be established or justified. 2. It cannot be established or justified that [“No theory can be established or justified.”] 3. [“No theory can be established or justified.”] is self-defeating or meaningless at best.
Popper: Incidentally, it does not try to show that the theory in question has a high probability (in the sense of the probability calculus) - because no theory has a high probability (in the sense of the probability calculus). [Popper, The Myth of the Framework, p.159]
I do hope that it superfluous for me to explain that “no theory has a high probability” is self-defeating. Popper has made the same incoherent claim elsewhere, e.g. Popper: “… no theory can be established neither as certainly true nor even as ‘probable’”. There is another irony here. Remember this one?
According to the stance of critical preference no position can be positively justified, but it is quite likely that one, (or some) will turn out to be better than others are in the light of critical discussion and tests.
So, no theory has high probability and no theory can be established even as probable … BUT … critical rationalism (a double misnomer) is based on the idea that it is “quite likely (!) that one [position], (or some) will turn out to be better than others are in the light of critical discussion and tests." The utter contempt for their own crazy rules when it comes to their own position is mind-boggling.Origenes
March 9, 2018
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Sorry KF, but I don’t see what that has to do with whether or not instructing soldiers to kill all men, women and children is morally acceptable. Maybe you can provide your opinion on this. If a commanding general orders his troops to kill all men, women and children during an attack, are there any circumstances where this would be morally acceptable?Allan Keith
March 9, 2018
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AK, did you actually read the linked from 36 above? Your comment does not sound like you did. And if you meant to summarise my point in 36 you missed badly.Try to start from "Either our rational faculties are morally governed through duties to truth, right, justice and much more, or else they are little more than means of clever manipulation. Where, to follow that path is instantly absurd, utterly undermining reasoned discussion." Then tell us, is this so or not, why. KFkairosfocus
March 9, 2018
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JAD@53, please don't get me wrong. I was never suggesting that we should interpret the bible literally. Just that when someone does make the inevitable comparison between the holocaust and the Canaanites, that we don't try to dance around and try to spin it by saying that killing all the women and children was morally acceptable because the Israelites were instructed by God to do this. I don't see what is wrong with simply saying that if the Israelites killed the women and children of Canaan that it was morally wrong then and is morally wrong now.Allan Keith
March 9, 2018
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@Barry
If I accept for the sake of argument that you are correct, that the Canaanite and Holocaust episodes are examples of the same sort of thing, that does not refute the point I made in the Becky’s Lesson story.
What is that?
The obvious purpose of the story is to refute the lame materialist assertion that we see all-too-many times in these pages that “morality comes from society.” The story exposes the vacuity of this position by demonstrating that if society determines morality, the Holocaust would have been moral if the Nazis had won the war and controlled societal discourse.
Except, as I've been suggesting, society is not actually a source of morality knowledge in the sense you've implying. It doesn't "come" from anywhere. The contents of moral knowledge, like all knowledge, starts out as a conjecture, which is controlled by criticism. Reason always comes first. Otherwise, you would need some way to infallibly identity an infallible source of moral values, infallibly interpret them and infallibly determine when to defer to them. As of yet, you haven't explained how that is possible. So, what I'm suggesting is, you have depicted two confused justificationists who are mistakenly arguing over which infallible sources actually isn't the source of their moral knowledge.
His own approach derives from the view that pure and certain sources do not exist, and that questions of origin or of purity should not be confounded with questions of validity, or of truth. This insight into the authoritarian tradition inspired Bartley to pursue a fundamental critique of the quest for positively justified beliefs, an error, which he labeled "justificationism". The target of Bartley's critique is the dogmatic or 'true belief' theory of rationality which demands positive justification as the criterion of rationality. This demand is summed up in the formula: Beliefs must be justified by an appeal to an authority of some kind, generally the source of the belief in question, and this justification makes the belief either rational, or if not rational at least valid for the person who holds it. The problem is to specify a suitable authority for certified beliefs. In the Anglo Saxon tradition of Empiricism the authority of sense experience was adopted. In the Continental Rationalist tradition, following Descartes, the locus of authority resides with the intellectual intuition. Both Empiricism and Rationalism evolved in conflict with ancient intellectual and religious authorities and their essentially individualistic ethos was recruited by political movements seeking liberty, equality and fraternity. But they did not challenge the deep-seated theory of justificationism, which provided the common framework of thought in which the rival schools waged their battles for intellectual, moral and political authority.
critical rationalist
March 9, 2018
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